MCAT MCAT Certifications MCAT-TEST Questions & Answers

• Question 1:

  In the United States, breast cancer is the second leading cause of death for women, and as a result, the American Cancer Society, has recommended annual mammography screening for women age 40 years and older. It is estimated that the risk of mortality can be reduced through this procedure by approximately 20-25% during a ten-year period for women age 40 years and older.

  In general, cancer screening behaviors have increased in the United States. According to the National Health Interview Survey, in 1987, approximately 29% of women age 40 years and older reported having had a mammogram in the last 2 years. By 2000, this increased to 70%. However, there are racial disparities, as fewer African American and Hispanic women have mammograms compared to their Caucasian female counterparts. Some studies have looked into these differences. Cultural factors seem to play a role in minority women obtaining fewer mammograms. Asian women, for example, do not like to discuss sensitive topics with strangers.

  Prevention promotions have been designed to increase awareness for the need of breast cancer screening, particularly for women in racial and ethnic minority groups. An innovative breast cancer education program, called the Educational Intervention Asian Grocery Store-Based Education Program, was designed to target Asian women. Located in 20 different Asian grocery stores in communities, the cancer screening exhibits were placed at the entrances of the stores. As Asian women came into the grocery store, health information was passed out to Asian women. Even though only a small amount of women who were considered non-adherents to breast cancer screening ended up scheduling a screening, the study demonstrated an innovative culturally competent approach to health promotion.

  Source: Adapted from G.R. Sadler, P.R. Beerman, K. Lee et al. "Promoting Breast Cancer Screening Among Asian American Women: The Asian Grocery Store Based Cancer Education Program." Copyright 2012 Journal of Cancer Education.

  If researchers from the Asian grocery store program offered a $5 coupon for groceries to women if they stopped by the exhibit booth, which persuasion strategy is being utilized?

  A. Social exchange technique

  B. Physical attractiveness manipulation technique

  C. Fear then relief technique

  D. Lowball technique

  Correct Answer: A

  A is correct. The concept of social exchanges as a persuasion tactic assumes that if a person is given a physical or psychological reward, then they will be more likely agree to the request in the future. B. This is incorrect. Physical attractiveness is a factor that promotes compliance. However, a $5 coupon is given to participants, and thus is unrelated to physical attractiveness. C. This is incorrect. The fear-then-relief strategy is a method where feelings of anxiety or apprehension are aroused and then the threat is quickly eliminated by replacing it with a small request. An offer of a $5 coupon is very unlikely to raise anxiety. D. This is incorrect. Lowball is a persuasion technique where the individual is offered an item at an attractively low price, and once the person has agreed, the price is increased. This was not what happened.

• Question 2:

  In the United States, breast cancer is the second leading cause of death for women, and as a result, the American Cancer Society, has recommended annual mammography screening for women age 40 years and older. It is estimated that the risk of mortality can be reduced through this procedure by approximately 20-25% during a ten-year period for women age 40 years and older.

  In general, cancer screening behaviors have increased in the United States. According to the National Health Interview Survey, in 1987, approximately 29% of women age 40 years and older reported having had a mammogram in the last 2 years. By 2000, this increased to 70%. However, there are racial disparities, as fewer African American and Hispanic women have mammograms compared to their Caucasian female counterparts. Some studies have looked into these differences. Cultural factors seem to play a role in minority women obtaining fewer mammograms. Asian women, for example, do not like to discuss sensitive topics with strangers.

  Prevention promotions have been designed to increase awareness for the need of breast cancer screening, particularly for women in racial and ethnic minority groups. An innovative breast cancer education program, called the Educational Intervention Asian Grocery Store-Based Education Program, was designed to target Asian women. Located in 20 different Asian grocery stores in communities, the cancer screening exhibits were placed at the entrances of the stores. As Asian women came into the grocery store, health information was passed out to Asian women. Even though only a small amount of women who were considered non-adherents to breast cancer screening ended up scheduling a screening, the study demonstrated an innovative culturally competent approach to health promotion.

  Source: Adapted from G.R. Sadler, P.R. Beerman, K. Lee et al. "Promoting Breast Cancer Screening Among Asian American Women: The Asian Grocery Store Based Cancer Education Program." Copyright 2012 Journal of Cancer Education.

  How would diffusion of innovations theory attempt to explain why African American women get fewer mammograms compared with their Caucasian female counterparts?

  A. African Americans tend to feel stigmatized when they seek medical treatment.

  B. It is possible that African American females experience multiple role conflicts and therefore, they are more likely to relegate their personal needs to the needs of their family.

  C. It is possible that there is pervasive distrust of medical personnel in African-American communities.

  D. Religiosity is a vital ingredient in the fabric of African American lives, and therefore, they will initially opt to see faith healers for their health.

  Correct Answer: C

  C is correct. Everett Rogers' (1962) cultural diffusion of innovations model describes how the diffusion of new ideas can spread directly or indirectly across society. He posited that communities which were more conservative and unwilling to adopt new technology would be slow to accept innovative ideas. Distrust of medical personnel would be a driver for that unwillingness to change. A. This is incorrect. A stigma is a socially discrediting attribute, behavior, or reputation that is assigned to an individual due to that person's belongingness to a particular social group. It usually involves social exclusion or rejection. This does not pertain to diffusion of innovations theory.

  B. This is incorrect. Gender role conflict occurs when people have multiple but incompatible roles associated with their gender. This does not pertain to diffusion of innovations theory. D. This is incorrect. According to Georg Simmel, religiosity is an inner disposition toward the sacred ?faith, for example ?while religion is the objective, organizational form that religiosity assumes in a social world (e.g., churches). This does not pertain to diffusion of innovations theory.

• Question 3:

  In the United States, breast cancer is the second leading cause of death for women, and as a result, the American Cancer Society, has recommended annual mammography screening for women age 40 years and older. It is estimated that

  the risk of mortality can be reduced through this procedure by approximately 20-25% during a ten-year period for women age 40 years and older.

  In general, cancer screening behaviors have increased in the United States. According to the National Health Interview Survey, in 1987, approximately 29% of women age 40 years and older reported having had a mammogram in the last 2

  years. By 2000, this increased to 70%. However, there are racial disparities, as fewer African American and Hispanic women have mammograms compared to their Caucasian female counterparts. Some studies have looked into these

  differences. Cultural factors seem to play a role in minority women obtaining fewer mammograms. Asian women, for example, do not like to discuss sensitive topics with strangers.

  Prevention promotions have been designed to increase awareness for the need of breast cancer screening, particularly for women in racial and ethnic minority groups. An innovative breast cancer education program, called the Educational

  Intervention Asian Grocery Store-Based Education Program, was designed to target Asian women. Located in 20 different Asian grocery stores in communities, the cancer screening exhibits were placed at the entrances of the stores. As

  Asian women came into the grocery store, health information was passed out to Asian women. Even though only a small amount of women who were considered non-adherents to breast cancer screening ended up scheduling a screening,

  the study demonstrated an innovative culturally competent approach to health promotion.

  Source: Adapted from G.R. Sadler, P.R. Beerman, K. Lee et al. "Promoting Breast Cancer Screening Among Asian American Women: The Asian Grocery Store Based Cancer Education Program." Copyright 2012 Journal of Cancer

  Education.

  What technique was being used by researchers from the Asian grocery store program if they tried to recruit more participants by asking for referrals to those who had previously agreed?

  A. Random digit dialing

  B. Snowball sampling

  C. Purposive sampling

  D. Simple random sampling

  Correct Answer: B

  B is correct. Snowball sampling is a non-probabilistic sampling technique that involves asking research subjects to refer or recommend people from their social network who might be interested in participating. The idea is that over time, the "snowball" gets larger. A major limitation of this type of sampling strategy is the amount of sampling bias introduced into the study. Specifically, study participants may lack diversity A. This is incorrect. Random digit dialing is a probabilistic sampling strategy that randomly selects phone numbers within area codes to recruit participants. C. This is incorrect. Purposive sampling is a non- probabilistic sampling strategy that looks for certain characteristics and only selects those who fulfil selection criteria. D. This is incorrect. Simple random sampling is a probabilistic sampling technique that will typically use a number generator to select subjects for a study.

• Question 4:

  In the United States, breast cancer is the second leading cause of death for women, and as a result, the American Cancer Society, has recommended annual mammography screening for women age 40 years and older. It is estimated that the risk of mortality can be reduced through this procedure by approximately 20-25% during a ten-year period for women age 40 years and older.

  In general, cancer screening behaviors have increased in the United States. According to the National Health Interview Survey, in 1987, approximately 29% of women age 40 years and older reported having had a mammogram in the last 2 years. By 2000, this increased to 70%. However, there are racial disparities, as fewer African American and Hispanic women have mammograms compared to their Caucasian female counterparts. Some studies have looked into these differences. Cultural factors seem to play a role in minority women obtaining fewer mammograms. Asian women, for example, do not like to discuss sensitive topics with strangers.

  Prevention promotions have been designed to increase awareness for the need of breast cancer screening, particularly for women in racial and ethnic minority groups. An innovative breast cancer education program, called the Educational Intervention Asian Grocery Store-Based Education Program, was designed to target Asian women. Located in 20 different Asian grocery stores in communities, the cancer screening exhibits were placed at the entrances of the stores. As Asian women came into the grocery store, health information was passed out to Asian women. Even though only a small amount of women who were considered non-adherents to breast cancer screening ended up scheduling a screening, the study demonstrated an innovative culturally competent approach to health promotion. Source: Adapted from G.R. Sadler, P.R. Beerman, K. Lee et al. "Promoting Breast Cancer Screening Among Asian American Women: The Asian Grocery Store Based Cancer Education Program." Copyright 2012 Journal of Cancer Education.

  How must promoters of health behaviors communicate with a high-context culture like the Asian?

  A. Communicate directly with participants, using informal language mostly, and with little emphasis on nonverbal cues

  B. Assume what is being said is what is actually meant

  C. Get to the point of the discussion as quickly as possible

  D. Employ formal language, rely on nonverbal cues, and be comfortable with silences

  Correct Answer: D

  D is correct. High-context cultures are those that have communication styles that rely on shared experiences, implicit messages, relational aspects, and nonverbal cues. That is, people from high context cultures tend to listen by focusing on the tone and how something was communicated, say more with fewer words, and intentionally make use of silence. Much is understood from manner, status, physical context, relationship, and/or shared background without use of words. They will also often take time to think things through before making a response. Conversely, lower-context cultures (e.g., America) are less comfortable with long pauses, use words to fill up silences, and communicate everything explicitly. A. This is incorrect. Explicit communication with little reliance on nonverbal cues is the main attribute in low- context cultures.

  B. This is incorrect. "Assume what is being said is what is actually meant" is characteristic of low-context cultures.

  C. This is incorrect. Those in low-context cultures want to get to the point quickly so as to meet an objective.

• Question 5:

  In the United States, breast cancer is the second leading cause of death for women, and as a result, the American Cancer Society, has recommended annual mammography screening for women age 40 years and older. It is estimated that the risk of mortality can be reduced through this procedure by approximately 20-25% during a ten-year period for women age 40 years and older.

  In general, cancer screening behaviors have increased in the United States. According to the National Health Interview Survey, in 1987, approximately 29% of women age 40 years and older reported having had a mammogram in the last 2 years. By 2000, this increased to 70%. However, there are racial disparities, as fewer African American and Hispanic women have mammograms compared to their Caucasian female counterparts. Some studies have looked into these differences. Cultural factors seem to play a role in minority women obtaining fewer mammograms. Asian women, for example, do not like to discuss sensitive topics with strangers. Prevention promotions have been designed to increase awareness for the need of breast cancer screening, particularly for women in racial and ethnic minority groups. An innovative breast cancer education program, called the Educational Intervention Asian Grocery Store-Based Education Program, was designed to target Asian women. Located in 20 different Asian grocery stores in communities, the cancer screening exhibits were placed at the entrances of the stores. As Asian women came into the grocery store, health information was passed out to Asian women. Even though only a small amount of women who were considered non-adherents to breast cancer screening ended up scheduling a screening, the study demonstrated an innovative culturally competent approach to health promotion.

  Source: Adapted from G.R. Sadler, P.R. Beerman, K. Lee et al. "Promoting Breast Cancer Screening Among Asian American Women: The Asian Grocery Store Based Cancer Education Program." Copyright 2012 Journal of Cancer Education.

  If the goal of the health communication is to influence individuals, families, neighborhoods, medical and social service organizations, and ultimately public health policy, health promoters are adhering to:

  A. Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory.

  B. Murray Bowen's family systems theory.

  C. John Bowlby's attachment theory.

  D. Milton Gordon's assimilation theory.

  Correct Answer: A

  A is correct. Ecological systems theory was first applied to understand child development and their socialization. It maintains that human behavior (in this case, health behavior) is influenced by multiple levels or spheres of influence of different orders, including the microsystem, which is related to the individual (e.g., the patient's beliefs, personality, past experiences, etc.); the mesosystem, which is related to those with whom the person relates to directly (e.g., the family, community, neighborhood, workplace, school, friends, etc.); the exosystem, which relates to institutions and organizations which regulate that person's community and with which the person does not often interact directly (e.g., health services, social services, legal institutions, industry, mass media, etc.); the macrosystem, which relates to that person's cultural milieu (e.g., culture, traditions, laws, etc.); and the chronosystem, which relates to the dimension of time (e.g., when the person was born, when they lost their parents, etc.). The latter system was introduced a later stage of his career.

  B. This is incorrect. Family systems theory argues that individual behaviors must be understood within the family system they come about. That is, one cannot understand individuals outside their family unit. It does not identify a wider frame of influence, as ecological system theory does. C. This is incorrect. Attachment theory emphasizes that behavior stem from the emotional attachments developed between infant and parents/caregivers. There are several types of attachment, characterized by the different sets of behaviors and experiences, and that influence relationship patterns established during adulthood. This theory is not concerned with the spheres of social influence upon the individual, as ecological system theory is. D. This is incorrect. Assimilation theory is used in sociology to understand how immigrants adopt the cultural norms of the new host country. It is not concerned with the spheres of social influence upon the individual, as ecological system theory is.

• Question 6:

  In the United States, breast cancer is the second leading cause of death for women, and as a result, the American Cancer Society, has recommended annual mammography screening for women age 40 years and older. It is estimated that the risk of mortality can be reduced through this procedure by approximately 20-25% during a ten-year period for women age 40 years and older.

  In general, cancer screening behaviors have increased in the United States. According to the National Health Interview Survey, in 1987, approximately 29% of women age 40 years and older reported having had a mammogram in the last 2 years. By 2000, this increased to 70%. However, there are racial disparities, as fewer African American and Hispanic women have mammograms compared to their Caucasian female counterparts. Some studies have looked into these differences. Cultural factors seem to play a role in minority women obtaining fewer mammograms. Asian women, for example, do not like to discuss sensitive topics with strangers.

  Prevention promotions have been designed to increase awareness for the need of breast cancer screening, particularly for women in racial and ethnic minority groups. An innovative breast cancer education program, called the Educational Intervention Asian Grocery Store-Based Education Program, was designed to target Asian women. Located in 20 different Asian grocery stores in communities, the cancer screening exhibits were placed at the entrances of the stores. As Asian women came into the grocery store, health information was passed out to Asian women. Even though only a small amount of women who were considered non-adherents to breast cancer screening ended up scheduling a screening, the study demonstrated an innovative culturally competent approach to health promotion.

  Source: Adapted from G.R. Sadler, P.R. Beerman, K. Lee et al. "Promoting Breast Cancer Screening Among Asian American Women: The Asian Grocery Store Based Cancer Education Program." Copyright 2012 Journal of Cancer Education.

  After learning about the foot-in-the-door technique, what might a health promoter do so to promote Asian women to sign up for a mammogram appointment?

  A. Give them a 15-minute lecture on the importance of early prevention.

  B. Promote the cultural concept of "loss of face" by informing them that the sponsors of the Educational Intervention Asian Grocery Store-Based Education Program put in a lot of money into the program and will lose face if progress is not made.

  C. Encourage them to take a free shopping bag that includes a box of tea bags and a brochure about mammograms.

  D. Tell them that many other Asian women have signed up right on the spot.

  Correct Answer: C

  C is correct. The foot-in-the-door technique is a persuasion strategy where the communicator starts off asking the individual to do something very small. Once the individual agrees, the premise is that the individual will more likely agree with a second request that is larger. In this case, the person was asked a very small request: to accept the bag, the tea offer, and the brochure. The idea is that this would 'open doors' toward the idea of making a mammography, which would stand for the last step of the strategy that involves a large request.

  A. This is incorrect. Giving them a lecture could amount to a request (listening). Yet, the pressure toward mammography is great during a persuading lecture on the topic. The foot-in-the-door technique usually promotes the idea via small approximating steps. It does not address the issue full on. Secondly, it most likely would not be beneficial. The health promoter needs to first establish credibility and trust. B. This is incorrect. Face is a concept whereby an individual's worth is tied to his/her social network. Face is lost when one's performance fails to live up to the standards set up by the social network. Ultimately, loss of face leads to feelings of shame. The foot-in-the-door technique usually promotes the idea via small approximating steps. Here too, the mammography request is addressed full-on, rather than via small approximating steps, as with the foot-in-the-door technique. D. This is incorrect. Telling them that other Asian women have signed might cause some feelings of peer pressure, but is unlikely to be effective because the health promoter has not established any credibility. Moreover, the mammography request is addressed full-on, rather than via small approximating steps, as with the foot-in-the-door technique.

• Question 7:

  A symbolic interactionism researcher who is observing two people enjoying a coffee together at a cafe would primarily point out that:

  A. the drinking ritual is symbolic and more important than the drink itself.

  B. coffee is a stimulant drug.

  C. coffee is the second most valuable commodity in international trade.

  D. coffee is a branded and politicized consumption good.

  Correct Answer: A

  A is correct. Symbolic interactionists observe how people relate to things on their daily life based on the meanings those things have for them. These meanings or symbols are created mainly through social interaction and language, and shape subsequent behavior. For instance, people can agree to meet to `have a coffee' but are not obliged to actually consume the drink. This is because the idea of meeting for a coffee is merely symbolic, standing for a short period of togetherness and socialization. Thus, they will not feel they are going against the initial plan if they have a tea instead. They will still enjoy the shared meaning of comfort and spending time with friends that stems from the idea of `having a coffee'. Thus, knowing the meaning of actions, words, and images for people is critical for understanding people's behavior and interaction. B. This is incorrect. The claim that coffee is a stimulant drug is true but a social interactionist perspective would not be interested in that issue. Rather, it would search for the underlying meaning of `having a coffee' or why it acceptable to consume a particular type of stimulant drugs in certain settings and under certain circumstances.

  C. This is incorrect. A Marxist perspective might pay attention to the nature of coffee as a commodity and how the global supply chain affects workers and economies worldwide. This is not of primary concern for social interactionism theory.

  D. This is incorrect. This would be of interest to theories about consumption and lifestyle. This is not of primary concern for social interactionism theory.

• Question 8:

  Family violence, such as domestic violence, child abuse, and elder abuse, are serious and pervasive problems in the United States. On an annual basis, the National Crime Survey has found domestic violence results in 21000 hospitalizations, 99800 days of hospitalization, 28700 emergency department visits, and 39900 visits to physicians.

  Currently there is little consensus about the definitions of intimate violence. Even the terms employed are varied; for example, domestic violence, conjugal violence, intimate abuse, and partner abuse. Similarly, there are a range of causal explanations, and these are contingent upon the theoretical perspective employed. There is also controversy whether the term "violence," "abuse," or "aggression" should be used. Finally, within the terms adopted, there is no consensus about the victim-perpetrator relationship. For example, do the terms refer to a married co-habiting couple? Two heterosexual individuals who do not reside together but are dating? All this has implications for research, practice, and policy.

  The National Violence Against Women Survey was one of the largest studies sponsored by the National Institute of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It systematically analyzed crime against women in the United States. A total of 8000 men and 8000 women in the United States were interviewed on the phone using a closed-ended survey. Table 1 displays the breakdown of figures when examining life time victimization by racial groups.

  Table 1 Percentage of people victimized by an intimate partner in lifetime, by victim gender, type of victimization, and victim race

  

  Source: Adapted from P Tjaden and N. Thoennes, "Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey."

  A feminist researcher would most likely want to test out which one of the following hypotheses in a study about domestic violence?

  A. Individuals who subscribe to patriarchal assumptions about men's role in society and male domination will more likely justify the use of violence against women.

  B. Those who are more egalitarian in their gender role assignments are more likely to endorse and perpetrate physical aggression against their female partners.

  C. Higher residential mobility, lower educational levels, and high stress levels will statistically significantly predict men's life time prevalence rates of perpetration of abuse.

  D. The frustration aggression hypothesis

  Correct Answer: A

  A is correct. Feminist theory posits that patriarchy, which consists of a system of societal organization that is led by fathers or elder males of the community, and male domination are reinforced and perpetuated by society's institutions. Violence against women is seen as one way of exercising male domination, and perpetuating gender differences in the institution of marriage, family, and so forth. B. This is incorrect. Those who espouse egalitarian gender role attitudes believe that the roles of men and women should be equal or fairly distributed. They will unlikely justify abuse on the behalf of men toward women, and much less as based on stereotypes and schemas about genders and their roles in society. Moreover, egalitarian gender role attitudes are not the opposite of patriarchy. Hence, their study would not target that which is at the core of feminist interests: the impact of patriarchy on society, and how to minimize it. C. This is incorrect. Residential mobility, educational levels, and stress have not been found to be predictors of abuse. Furthermore, unless these are connected to social male domination in some way, they are also not the factors targeted by feminists.

  D. This is incorrect. The frustration aggression hypothesis has been put forth to explain aggression. It argues that individuals who are frustrated will be more aggressive than those who are not. This is unrelated to feminist views on the issue.

• Question 9:

  Family violence, such as domestic violence, child abuse, and elder abuse, are serious and pervasive problems in the United States. On an annual basis, the National Crime Survey has found domestic violence results in 21000 hospitalizations, 99800 days of hospitalization, 28700 emergency department visits, and 39900 visits to physicians.

  Currently there is little consensus about the definitions of intimate violence. Even the terms employed are varied; for example, domestic violence, conjugal violence, intimate abuse, and partner abuse. Similarly, there are a range of causal explanations, and these are contingent upon the theoretical perspective employed. There is also controversy whether the term "violence," "abuse," or "aggression" should be used. Finally, within the terms adopted, there is no consensus about the victim-perpetrator relationship. For example, do the terms refer to a married co-habiting couple? Two heterosexual individuals who do not reside together but are dating? All this has implications for research, practice, and policy.

  The National Violence Against Women Survey was one of the largest studies sponsored by the National Institute of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It systematically analyzed crime against women in the United States. A total of 8000 men and 8000 women in the United States were interviewed on the phone using a closed-ended survey. Table 1 displays the breakdown of figures when examining life time victimization by racial groups.

  Table 1 Percentage of people victimized by an intimate partner in lifetime, by victim gender, type of victimization, and victim race

  

  Source: Adapted from P Tjaden and N. Thoennes, "Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey."

  Which of the following methodological procedures would NOT help to assure that the findings in Table 1 allow drawing valid and reliable conclusions about differences in victimization incidence across race groups?

  A. Verify whether the population in the US shows or does not show the same proportion of races as that found for the study illustrated in Table 1.

  B. Create equal sample sizes and test whether group differences are significant, like through ANOVA.

  C. Verify whether the samples per condition are or are not fairly equivalent in term of demographic characteristics, such as age, place of residence, and employment status.

  D. Verify whether race groups are or are not strongly and significantly correlated to the number of victimization incidents.

  Correct Answer: D

  D is correct. Correlations are association tests that can be applied only when there are at least ordinal variables under study. The study illustrated in Table 1 includes one at least ordinal variable: amount of victimization incidents. This is a quantitative variable. However, race groups are a nominal variable. Thus, correlations could not be applied to help to assure that valid and reliable conclusions about race group differences in victimization incidence can be drawn. A. This is incorrect. Verifying whether the population in the US shows or does not show the same proportion of races as that found for the study illustrated in Table 1 would help to understand whether the race groups are representative of the population. Representativeness is critical for drawing valid conclusions about differences in victimization incidence; it helps to understand whether findings can be generalized to the overall population. B. This is incorrect. The race-group sample sizes in the study illustrated in Table 1 are fairly dissimilar. Tests such as ANOVA, that test whether group differences are significant, require the fulfilment of a series of conditions, one of which being the similarity of sample sizes per condition. Thus, if groups of equal sizes were formed from the study data, researchers could test statistically whether differences in incidence of victimization across race groups were or not significant. C. This is incorrect. Verifying whether the samples per condition are or not fairly equivalent in term of demographic characteristics, such as age, place of residence, and employment status, would provide an idea of whether the groups are "matched". Matched samples are those which are fairly similar in terms of demographic traits. This procedure helps to minimize the odds of the presence of confounding variables, and as such contributes to the validity of conclusions.

• Question 10:

  Family violence, such as domestic violence, child abuse, and elder abuse, are serious and pervasive problems in the United States. On an annual basis, the National Crime Survey has found domestic violence results in 21000 hospitalizations, 99800 days of hospitalization, 28700 emergency department visits, and 39900 visits to physicians.

  Currently there is little consensus about the definitions of intimate violence. Even the terms employed are varied; for example, domestic violence, conjugal violence, intimate abuse, and partner abuse. Similarly, there are a range of causal explanations, and these are contingent upon the theoretical perspective employed. There is also controversy whether the term "violence," "abuse," or "aggression" should be used. Finally, within the terms adopted, there is no consensus about the victim-perpetrator relationship. For example, do the terms refer to a married co-habiting couple? Two heterosexual individuals who do not reside together but are dating? All this has implications for research, practice, and policy.

  The National Violence Against Women Survey was one of the largest studies sponsored by the National Institute of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It systematically analyzed crime against women in the United States. A total of 8000 men and 8000 women in the United States were interviewed on the phone using a closed-ended survey. Table 1 displays the breakdown of figures when examining life time victimization by racial groups.

  Table 1 Percentage of people victimized by an intimate partner in lifetime, by victim gender, type of victimization, and victim race Source: Adapted from P Tjaden and N. Thoennes, "Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey."

  

  When interpreting the data about lifetime prevalence rates of physical assault, as experienced by women in the four different racial minority groups, which of the following sociological theories is least helpful at explaining found differences?

  A. Attribution theory

  B. Feminist theory

  C. Social desirability theory

  D. Conflict theory

  Correct Answer: C

  C is correct. Social desirability is more adequately described as a mechanism, phenomenon, or bias ?not as a social theory. It is defined as the phenomenon whereby individuals in a research study will attempt to present themselves in a more favorable light. In studies involving sensitive topics (e.g., racial opinions) or which are utilized for sensitive purposes (e.g., job applications), there is a chance that respondents will distort or fake factual information so as to be more favorably perceived. Secondly, social desirability is not commonly used to explain such differences. Moreover, presently, there is no evidence of social desirability affecting differently different racial groups. That is, theoretically speaking, it could affect equally every group. Thus, this is the least helpful theory at explaining found differences. A. This is incorrect. Attribution theory argues that individuals tend to attribute causal explanations to events. It has been observed being applied to justify crime. Specifically, people make different causal attributions to offenders of different races. A similar argument could be made in regards to the cause of victimization.

  B. This is incorrect. Feminist theory explores the role of patriarchy in the domination of women, and some of its proponents argue that physical assault on women is motivated by power and control rather than sexual gratification. It could argue that, in certain races, patriarchy was more marked than in others. As such, individuals from those races would have higher propensity for being victimized. Some evidence further suggests that there are some inter-racial differences, such as white individuals being victims of assault in in interracial marriages more frequently, and less frequently being perpetrators in interracial marriages. D. This incorrect. Conflict theory posits that certain groups will have different levels of power due to differential access to resources. The group with greater power will tend to exploit the group with less power. The table does neither provide any data about each group's access to resources nor about which group is exploiting (assaulting) which. Even though, theorists from the field could argue that those with less resources and power would have higher propensity for being victimized. In ascending order, that those with the least power would be: American Indian/ Alaska Native, then Mixed Race, then African- American, then White, and finally Asian Pacific Islander. That is, the group with the greatest power in the U.S., where the study was performed, would be the Asian Pacific Islander. In broad strokes, for Asian, White, and African-American races, this would be consistent with reports from the Census depicting medium household income in 2004 but not necessarily with other metrics.